2. African Environmental Philosophy

Day 2: African Philosophy

Readings

1. Towards an African eco-philosophy by Dr. Anthony Uzochukwu and others

2. African eco-philosophy: cosmology, consciousness, and the environment by Ikechukwu Anthony KANU

3. An African Perspective on the Environmental Crisis by Segun Ogungbemi

4. Reconsidering Reparations by Olúfẹ́mi O. Táíwò

Towards an African Eco-Philosophy written by Nigerian philosophers Dr. Ufearoh, Dr. Iwuagwu, and Dr. Eze, demonstrates that an African eco-philosophy is urgently needed in order to address the pressing ecological concerns from African perspectives and with African interests in mind. Not only is an African eco-philosophy important for the continent to know which economic and ecological reforms they wish to undertake, “African eco-philosophy [also] becomes a quest for self-assertion and self-realisation”. The authors explain that Africa, in a sense, is the main victim of environmental degradation, which was brought on by more developed economies and technologies. Therefore there are two goals to reach: climate justice, and ecological reform.

Understanding African cosmology helps to understand the African interpretations of reality and of the world - hence helping us to understand their eco-philosophy (their relationship to nature and how we ought to take care of it). Their cosmology asserts that life is a continuum, where the world is separated into two domains: spiritual (realm of spiritual entities: the Supreme Being, gods, ancestors, and the unborn) and physical (humans and other biotic and abiotic entities). These two worlds overlap with each other, as the division is merely metaphorical. This of course has ecological implications as it brings up the questions of intergenerational justice:

“The African worldview is hierarchically structured. This is the gradient of forces: first on the list is God/Creator, Chukwu. After God come the arch-patriarchs, founders of different clans. Next are the dead of the tribe or the ancestors existing according to their order of primogeniture. After the ancestors (the living dead), we have the living human beings. Then come the animals, [vegetation] and minerals. The above hierarchy may give a false impression of a radically atomized universe of existence. The beings are however inextricably united as we shall see. Man for instance is in constant interaction with even nonhuman.” (l.11-20 p.24)

Hence, reality is “dynamic, volatile, permeating and interpenetrating”. In other words, there is a “cosmic harmony” between all things. This therefore means that destroying one part of the circle (the environment), destroys the circle as a whole (including humans). Hence preserving the environment is at some level also self-preservation. “Ecological balance is a conditio sine qua non in the African universe”. In conclusion, and “anchoring on African communal ontology, the African ecological ethics has both communal and religious colouration”.

We find that the views we read about in this text and those from the Native American text we analysed had many similarities. Both cultures have a ‘Mother Nature’ like perspective where nature exists almost as a separate entity of spiritual domain: one that should be respected and adapted to as more sacred and powerful than human beings. The idea, too, that all things are intertwined and related, including humans, and therefore that the harmony and health of some of the parts (e.g. nature and the land) is required for the flourishing of others (e.g. humans) was obvious in both.

We also read chapter 7 and 8 of African Eco-Philosophy: cosmology, consciousness and the environment by Ikechukwu Anthony KANU, OSA, PhD. The Introduction lays out the African philosophy over the environment: “In our traditional relationship with nature, men and women recognize the importance of water and air management to our traditional communities. The ethics of not taking more than you need from nature is a moral code. Perhaps this explains why earth, forest, rivers, wind and other national objects are traditionally believed to be both natural and divine. The philosophy behind this belief may not necessarily be religious but a natural means by which the human environment can be preserved. The ethics of care is essential to traditional understanding of environmental protection and conservation.”

Like the first reading, this one explains that the current ecological crisis is mostly due to “Western consumerist and hedonistic approach towards the use of the environment; viewed as a property rather than a whole to which the human person is a part.”. In fact, the author also argues that localised to Africa, this crisis emerged with colonialism as it “altered traditional patterns of relationship to the environment”. The globalised economy has suppressed a large amount of humanity’s traditions and heritage. The authors cite: “Francis (2015) teaches that: There is a need to respect the rights of peoples and cultures, and to appreciate that the development of a social group presupposes an historical process which takes place within a cultural context and demands the constant and active involvement of local people from within their proper culture (no. 144).” “Attempts to resolve all problems through uniform regulations or technical interventions can lead to overlooking the complexities of local problems which demand the active participation of all members of the community.” Solutions need to be found in and by the local cultures, in order to better address the underlying problems rather than simply addressing the symptoms.

We discussed the fact that re-centralising production would enable us to tackle both economic development and sustainability. For example, a piece of machinery that is essential in one African country is only manufactured in the Netherlands. Here, having a production site already in the country would allow two positive outcomes: (1) new jobs in the country leading to economic growth and (2) less polluting emissions from transportation. In addition, localising solutions increases people’s essential sense of ownership and sense of the environment.

The lasting impact of slavery and colonisation cannot be ignored in this discussion. The infrastructure and economies of African countries are such that clean water, for example, is a necessity not necessarily met: largely because of the devastation caused for example by the triangular trade. Charitable efforts from western countries are needed, and some would argue required, but are certainly not always effective. It’s also worth considering the methods with which aid is implemented: on local micro scales, focussing on smaller communities directly impacted by climate change, or on a macro governmental level?

Chapter 7 lays out the African perspectives on resolving the conflict of prioritising between environmental conservation (the ethic of duty) and the forces driving economic development. Would sustainable development be the answer to this dilemma? A “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (1987 report ‘Our Common Future’, the Brundtland Commission).

“Protected areas for biodiversity means cleaner air (good for humans’ health, to preserve environment and future generations), but also means less ground to build housing (homelessness), the closing of businesses (logging, mining, …), less grounds to grow crops whilst the population increases (so need for food increases too). If conservation strategies distress human populations, especially those who are less powerful, politically marginalised, and poor, little that conservationists argue on behalf of biodiversity makes sense. Conservation, the argument goes, has led to the displacement of tens of millions of people who formerly lived, hunted, and farmed in areas now protected for wildlife, watersheds, reefs, forests, or rare ecosystems.”

The author discusses tools and approaches for facilitating conservation and development outcomes:

1. “Link local (indigenous) knowledge, experience, and the aspirations of different groups to formal land-use planning and decision making.

2. Develop the adaptive capacities of leaders and institutions through better communication and involvement of local land users and managers

3. Work at multiple jurisdictional levels. It means intervening at all levels from the local community to the national government and even influencing some international agencies and companies that are active in the landscape.

4. Build capabilities through explicit activities and procedures. It is usually insufficient to deliver new knowledge and options. The work needs to incorporate the key actors as they will be the ultimate users of any new knowledge or information.”

We also might consider how traditional African methods of, for instance, farming, may be much more sustainable that methods typically used in the West, where capitalism tends to drive production beyond sustainable or environmentally friendly methods in order to maximise product output. Often chemicals pollute farmland or local habitats, making them unusable and hurting local ecosystems.

An African Perspective on the Environmental Crisis by Segun Ogungbemi addresses some general environmental ethical views from African perspectives. He argues that in order to properly understand the nature of the environmental crisis in Africa, we need to understand the ways in which both traditional and modern social structures have led to environmental degradation. Traditionally, people lived in harmony with the natural environment, their behaviour reflecting an attitude of caring for the non-human world in which they live (cf African cosmology on the environment discussed above).

Social and economic systems are changing, prompting fast increases in environmental exploitation. Numerous African countries are asset rich, but since their economies are not organised to make the most out of these assets, they are traded with almost no 'value added' (foreign organisations extract the resources to then sell them abroad).

Great increases in population seem to be a further issue. Numerous African nations have quick population growth, with the usual resulting ecological issues. However, Ogungbemi says that it's not clear that population, by itself, is the key problem. Rather, it is the inequitable distribution of global wealth.

Ogungbemi proposes a return to the traditional attitude reflected in the "ethics of care" regarding our interactions with the environment. This is not a preservationist approach, nor is it in any way non-anthropocentric. Rather, it is an approach that recognizes that humans necessarily rely upon the natural world for existence. Because of this reliance, we must treat the environments in which we live with due respect -- for the sake of current and future human well-being.

Finally, we looked at an African-American perspective on environmental ethics, namely the book Reconsidering Reparations by Olúfẹ́mi O. Táíwò. This book lays out what reparations for slavery should be, taking into consideration the climate change issue and the big emitters' depts. This “constructive view” is based on the idea “that reparations should be seen as a future-oriented project engaged in building a better social order; and that the costs of building a more equitable world should be distributed more to those who have inherited the moral liabilities of past injustices.”

The topic of reparations is highly intertwined when talking about nature, the environment, and climate action. Much of ongoing systemic racism is rooted in land ownership - both as a holdover from land being seized from native populations or from the barring of ownership or renting by ethnic minorities - either in practice or legally. And when systemic oppression has contributed hugely to the lack of sustainability or ability to implement environmental policies, how much is the onus on western countries to contribute? When considering the weighting of climate responsibility it’s also interesting that some countries are much bigger polluters than others and in practice how to recognise and enact policies that bear this in mind.

“This approach to reparations, as Táíwò shows, has deep and surprising roots in the thought of Black political thinkers such as James Baldwin, Martin Luther King Jr, and Nkechi Taifa, as well as mainstream political philosophers like John Rawls, Charles Mills, and Elizabeth Anderson. Táíwò's project has wide implications for our views of justice, racism, the legacy of colonialism, and climate change policy.”

"Colonialism isn't over. Instead of men in pith helmets, the rich now send pollution, climate catastrophe, development consultants and philanthropists. In this sweeping, subtle and sophisticated analysis, Olúfẹ́mi O. Táíwò presents an iron-clad case for why colonialism's end must coincide with a reparative transformation in relations between the coloniser and colonised, in the Global North and South. It's required reading for anyone looking for the arguments to support a just, and healing, future." -- Raj Patel, author of The Value of Nothing and co-author of Inflamed: Deep Medicine and the Anatomy of Injustice

We also discussed the article “There’s a simple way to unite everyone behind climate justice - and it’s within our power” by George Monbiot in The Guardian. Monbiot explains how “cancelling poor nations’ historic debts would allow their governments to channel money into climate adaptation.”

“Developed by campaigners in some of the world’s most exploited countries, it’s a brilliant idea: simple but systemic. Rich nations owe a massive climate debt to poorer nations: for the devastating impacts of the fossil fuels we have burned. Yet they have no intention of paying for the loss and damage they have caused. Poor countries are deemed to owe massive financial debts to the rich nations, yet they cannot pay them without destroying their economies and their ecosystems. The proposal is simultaneously to cancel both the climate and the financial debts, liberating the money poorer nations need to take climate action. Debt for Climate, mobilising labour, social and climate movements in 28 countries, will be launched by campaigners during the G7 summit in Germany”. “The idea that the global south, looted and enslaved for centuries, should owe money to its exploiters is grotesque.” “Debt is imperialism by other means. It’s equivalent to the hut taxes imposed by the British in their African colonies. These taxes, often levied in currencies Africans did not possess, forced them to surrender their resources or their labour to colonial projects. Today, foreign debt forces nations to hand their assets to rich countries and multinational companies. For example, a report from Green New Deal suggests that debt has been used by the World Bank as a means of obliging Senegal to allow US, Australian and British companies to exploit its oil and gas”. “Forced austerity and forced exploitation of fossil fuel reserves are threads that could draw together climate and social justice campaigns all over the world.”

We have talked previously on the subject of the gentrification of environmentally friendly practice. It’s worth pointing out also that many western methods of sustainability could be considered ‘technocratic’. In LEDCs, how reasonable is it to demand the production of expensive and technical systems, such as windmill farms, for example?

We considered whether the effect of slavery and colonisation on African civilisation had an impact on their curent status in environmental-friendly technology. The articles explained that these two-phenomenon dehumanised and detached the people from their environment which rendered them unable to appreciate nature. We also discussed the importance of the massive Christian conversions in Africa during the colonial era, and how these new inculcated ideals and principles must have affected people from Africa’s view on the environment. Indeed, Christianity has a very different way of perceiving nature compared to the African cosmology that we have previously touched upon. In Christianity there is the dominion view (humans rule over nature and are in charge of the world on behalf of God. This gives humans the right to use the world's natural resources for their own benefit) and the stewardship view (humans are responsible for the world, and should take care and look after it). The influence of religion on cultural and philosophical thinking can’t be undermined, as later texts this week will discuss. It was also pointed out that branches of Pentecostal Christianity, for instance, that have larger african communities and influences, have more of a stewardship view of nature compared to other larger denominations that have more western roots.